Anti-Black racism remains a pervasive issue in Canada, challenging the nation’s commitment to diversity and inclusion. Despite Canada’s reputation as a multicultural society, systemic barriers and discriminatory practices continue to disproportionately affect Black communities. This article explores the current landscape of anti-Black racism in Canada, highlighting the historical roots, contemporary manifestations, and the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to combat racism today and beyond. When fairness requires redistributing power, opportunities, or attention, those accustomed to privilege may interpret the change as loss rather than balance.
“anti-Black racism” first used by Dr. Akua Benjamin in 2003, a Social Work professor, TMU, but coined by those in the community.
To understand the persistence of anti-Black racism, it’s essential to acknowledge its historical foundations. Black Canadians have faced centuries of oppression, including slavery, segregation, and systemic discrimination. The legacy of colonialism, alongside the transatlantic slave trade, has left a profound impact on the socio-economic status and cultural identity of Black communities across the country (Henry & Tator, 2009), North America and Caribbean. Today, the Neighborhood Investment Areas (NIAs), in Toronto, formerly Neighborhood Priority Areas (NPAs), are based on socioeconomic indicators where majority racialized communities live and are disproportionately under-resourced. Coupled with University of Toronto’s Three Cities Within a City, a study of income divide over decades (image below) – indicating social inequities that persist over time, and intersect with issues of health, class and education.
Anti-Black racism in Canada manifests across multiple sectors, significantly impacting the lives and well-being of Black Canadians. In education, Black students often face systemic disadvantages such as harsher disciplinary actions and biased academic streaming, reflecting entrenched institutional racism (Cameron & Jefferies, 2020). In healthcare, Black Canadians in Ontario experience structural racism characterized by cultural incompetence and delayed care, particularly affecting Black women and immigrants (Inikori, Dapaah, & Kangmennaang, 2025). Exposure to everyday racism also negatively influences access to health services and overall health outcomes among urban Black communities (Husbands, et al., 2022).
The COVID-19 pandemic further exposed and exacerbated these disparities, with Black Canadians experiencing higher infection rates and mistrust in healthcare systems – image below (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2024; Black Health Alliance, 2021). Additionally, qualitative research in Montreal has documented experiences of racism and discrimination in healthcare settings, highlighting the implicit biases of providers that compromise care quality (Williams et al., 2024). These studies underscore the pervasive and multifaceted nature of anti-Black racism in Canada and the urgent need for systemic reforms.
source: https://blackhealthalliance.ca/wp-content/uploads/Perspectives-on-Health-Well-Being-in-Black-Communities-in-Toronto-Experiences-through-COVID-19.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Source: http://3cities.neighbourhoodchange.ca/
Work and Education
Workplace racism persists, evident in hiring biases, pay gaps, and limited advancement opportunities. The Black Canadian National Survey found that 96% of respondents viewed racism as a workplace problem, with nearly half reporting unfair treatment by employers, such as pay or promotion in the previous year (Foster, Park, & McCague, 2021). Beyond overt discrimination, systemic barriers and tokenism continue to marginalize Black professionals, while organizational cultures often privilege whiteness and undervalue Black expertise (Cameron & Jefferies, 2020). Achieving genuine equity requires structural change, accountability, and centering the lived experiences of Black Canadians.
In education, DasGupta, et al, in a 2020 BCG study, reported Black students are 4 times more likely to get expelled – owing to both individual and systemic issues, specific, for example, to the Safer Schools Act Ontario, which aimed to address bullying, harassment, and discrimination in schools. However, students, families and communities have voiced the systemic racism in its enforcement. The Act disproportionately targets racialized and marginalized youth, leading to discriminatory outcomes. Concerns include over-policing and harsher punishment for certain groups. As well, the Act does not address root causes of discrimination, like systemic racism in education. Overall, while the Act aims for safer schools, addressing concerns of systemic racism is crucial for creating truly equitable and inclusive learning environments. These are but a few of the systemic outcomes of oppression.
Historical Manifestations
History in Canada is not too long ago when it comes to oppression, the reverberations of which can be felt to this day. Many do not know of the history of enslavement and persistent displacement of Black Canadians, and how Canada later became a key stop on the Underground Railroad (1820s–1860s). From Africville, Halifax, to Willowgrove, NB, and Hogan’s Alley, Vancouver. Other notable Black settlements include, Buxton (near Chatham-Kent), Dawn (Josiah Henson Museum of African‑Canadian History, Dresden), Black Loyalist Heritage Centre in Birchtown, Nova Scotia, as formerly enslaved people established new lives.
Africville, a historic African Canadian community in Halifax, Nova Scotia, was established in the early 19th century by Black refugees and former enslaved people seeking refuge and land ownership. Despite its vibrant culture and contributions to Halifax’s economy, Africville faced systemic neglect and discrimination from municipal authorities, while paying taxes, were not provided basic services, sewage and city services and endured systemic racism and social exclusion. In the 1960s, the City of Halifax forcibly relocated residents, demolishing homes and structures under the guise of urban renewal. The demolition, widely condemned as racial discrimination, led to the dissolution of Africville, with residents displaced and their heritage destroyed. Efforts to seek redress and preserve Africville’s memory continue, including the establishment of a museum and commemorative initiatives, highlighting the ongoing struggle against racism and historical injustice.
Willow Grove was a historic Black settlement located in Willow Grove, New Brunswick. Established by formerly enslaved individuals in the 19th century, it grew into a thriving community with schools, churches, and farms. However, as urbanization encroached on the area, many residents were forced to sell their land, leading to the gradual decline of Willowgrove as a distinct Black settlement.
Hogan’s Alley, was a vibrant Black community located in the Strathcona/ East End area of Vancouver.. Similar to Africville, it was a hub of Black culture, with residents establishing businesses, churches, and social institutions. However, In the 1950s-1970s, urban renewal projects and highway construction led to the demolition of Hogan’s Alley, displacing its residents and erasing much of its history. These are but a few examples.
Contemporary Manifestations
Despite progress in civil rights legislation and diversity initiatives, anti-Black racism persists in various forms within Canadian society. Black Canadians continue to face disproportionate rates of poverty, unemployment, and involvement in the criminal justice system (Henry & Tator, 2009. Racial profiling by law enforcement, barriers to access healthcare and education, and limited representation in positions of power underscore the systemic nature of anti-Black racism (Henry & Tator, 2009; Fante-Coleman & Jackson-Best; 2020; Ferreira & Ross, 2021; Okusanya & Meyer, 2025). The recent 2021 provincial race-based data collection and dissemination underscores the disparities in policing and other public sector institutions and the immense work still left to be done. Research has existed, from studies such as “Race, Crime, and Criminal Justice in Canada” (Wortley, 2002) that highlight disparities in police stops, arrests, and use of lethal force based on race, with Black and Indigenous individuals facing heightened scrutiny and harsher treatment.
While Wortley’s research, and many others such as Dr. Akwasi Owusu-Bempah, documents how discriminatory practices erode trust in law enforcement, which exacerbate feelings of alienation and injustice, and perpetuate cycles of poverty and marginalization among racialized groups, the issue persists decades later. The “Report of the Independent Street Checks Review” (2019) in Ontario underscores the detrimental effects of racial profiling on community-police relations and calls for systemic reforms to address racial biases.
In 2023, a class action lawsuit was filed (Griffin, 2023) against the Toronto police for their ongoing practice of “carding,” which disproportionately harms Black and Indigenous communities. The plaintiff, Ayaan Farah, a Somali-Canadian with no criminal record, was unfairly targeted and suffered consequences such as losing her security clearance and facing accusations of association with criminal elements, after being carded. Farah was “sitting in public” in 2011 when she was detained by Toronto police officers who allegedly recorded her personal information without providing a reason. The lawsuit alleges widespread harm, including privacy violations and damage to mental and physical well-being. Despite being officially discontinued, carding persists, disproportionately impacting marginalized groups.
The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these disparities, with Black communities experiencing higher rates of infection, economic hardship, and inadequate access to healthcare resources (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2020; Black Health Alliance, 2021). Moreover, incidents of racial violence and hate crimes targeting Black individuals have heightened concerns about safety and belonging within Canadian society (Government of Canada, 2021). The chronic and material implications on all facets of life is real for those experiencing the impacts of racism. In many instances, how are individuals to report it and see its resolution?
Challenges and Resistance
Dismantling anti-Black racism requires a multifaceted approach at its structural, institutional, and interpersonal dimensions. However, efforts to combat racism are often hindered by denialism, complacency, structural status quo, politics, and resistance to change. Moreover, the model minority myth and the perpetuation of stereotypes further marginalize Black voices and experiences, hindering solidarity among racialized groups and across. Despite this, Black communities and allies have mobilized to challenge systemic injustices and advocate for meaningful change. Grassroots organizations, social movements, and academic research play a crucial role in raising awareness, amplifying marginalized voices, and pressuring policymakers to enact anti-racist policies. We have seen this as increased accountability measures, including marginalized voices in solutions, transparency of information, data collection and resource allocation.
Recommendations for Action
To effectively address anti-Black racism – policymakers, institutions, and individuals must commit to concrete actions, and evaluations, which promote equity, justice, and inclusion. And not just on paper. Engagement, buy-in, support and leadership are all necessary ingredients.
Policies & Legislation
Implementing anti-racist policies and legislation (or amendments) that address systemic inequalities and discrimination within key sectors such as healthcare, education, and criminal justice. This must be done in a prompt manner, without bureaucratic delays.
- In healthcare, policies can be implemented to address racial disparities in access to care and health outcomes. Tools such as mandatory cultural competency training, transparent client feedback, the development of guidelines for equitable healthcare delivery can be utilized. As well metrics for eliminating prior negligence or cases of racism must be targets for healthcare professionals to meet and be incentivized through positive cultural changes, and the development of guidelines for equitable healthcare delivery can be utilized.
- In education, anti-racist curriculum frameworks and policies can be developed to promote diversity, inclusivity, and the accurate portrayal of diverse histories and cultures. Tools such as anti-bias training for educators and the incorporation of Indigenous perspectives into the curriculum can be employed.
- In criminal justice, reforms can be enacted to address racial profiling, over-representation of Black and Indigenous peoples in the justice system, and discriminatory sentencing practices. Tools such as mandatory anti-racism training for law enforcement personnel and the implementation of alternative sentencing programs can be utilized. As well sentencing reform through addressing racial disparities in sentencing by reducing mandatory minimum sentences and increasing the use of alternative sentencing programs.
Community-Led Initiatives
Investing in community-led initiatives and resources that support the socio-economic advancement of Black Canadians, including access to affordable housing, healthcare, and education.
- Investing in affordable housing initiatives led by Black community organizations can provide stable housing options for Black Canadians facing housing insecurity. Tools such as community land trusts and government subsidies for affordable housing projects can be utilized.
- Investing in healthcare clinics or programs specifically tailored to address the healthcare needs of Black communities can improve access to quality healthcare services. Tools such as grants or funding opportunities for community health organizations can be employed.
- Supporting scholarship programs and initiatives aimed at increasing access to higher education for Black youth can help address disparities in educational attainment. Tools such as mentorship programs and financial aid tailored to Black students can be beneficial. However, addressing the disparities within the elementary schools and high schools are necessary pre-requisites.
- Investing in youth spaces and initiatives aimed at full cultural and psycho-social development of young adults in ways that they desire – not just adult-led spaces. Mentorship, resources, and trusted adults are all necessary for positive advancements.
Improve Diversity & Inclusion
Enhancing diversity and inclusion efforts within organizations by evaluating the effectiveness of prior initiatives, requesting feedback from customers, clients or community members and championing against power and privilege dynamics and dominator culture are all necessary. By promoting representation, providing anti-racism training, and fostering inclusive workplace cultures, improvements can be made, but they must be measured and made priorities seamlessly into teams and strategic plans.
- Creating policies and procedures to address workplace discrimination and harassment can foster inclusive workplace cultures. Tools such as anonymous reporting systems for discrimination complaints and regular diversity audits can be utilized.
- Amplifying Black voices and experiences in public discourse, media representation, and educational curricula to challenge stereotypes and promote empathy and understanding.
- Engaging in genuine allyship and solidarity across racial and ethnic lines to dismantle intersecting forms of oppression and build collective resistance against racism, through power and decision sharing, and actively transforming gaps in the institutions even when it feels uncomfortable.
- Building coalitions and alliances with Indigenous, racialized, and marginalized communities to advocate for systemic change and challenge intersecting forms of oppression. Tools such as coalition-building initiatives, allyship workshops, and anti-oppression training can be employed.
- Supporting grassroots movements and organizations led by Black activists working towards racial justice and equity. Tools such as fundraising campaigns, volunteering opportunities, and advocacy efforts can be utilized.
Enhancing diversity and inclusion efforts within organizations
To create a more successful and equitable workplace there must be leadership commitment, a diverse workforce through hiring, an inclusive workplace, and measuring progress.
- Implementing diversity quotas or targets for hiring and promotion can promote representation of Black employees within organizations. Tools such as diversity training programs for staff and leadership and the establishment of employee resource groups can be employed. Tools such as diversity training programs for staff and leadership and the establishment of employee resource groups can be employed. However, as we have previously reported, diversity quotas are not standalone solutions.
- Creating policies and procedures to address workplace discrimination and harassment can foster inclusive workplace cultures. Tools such as anonymous reporting systems for discrimination complaints and regular diversity audits can be utilized.
- Foster psychological safety in the workplace to encourage employees to speak up and share ideas without fear of retaliation. Celebrate diversity and recognize the unique contributions of a diverse workforce. Commit to continuous learning and improvement of D&I practices, understanding that it’s an ongoing journey.
Does Training Work
Often cited solutions are cultural competency training and bias training – but do they work? There is research that supports and refutes the intended outcomes, which vary greatly. However, there are ineffective approaches. Generic training does not address the unique needs and cultural context of groups, for example in law enforcement it is often noted that despite training the data overall has not shown a significant improvement in negative police interactions. Further, training that relies on stereotypes or generalizations about cultures can be offensive and perpetuate biases. The attitudinal changes must be connected to the behavioural changes and measured. Trainer expertise is also fundamental – being culturally competent and experts in adult learning principles are necessary
Providing information about differences without developing practical skills won’t lead to lasting change, therefore knowledge acquisition alone is not the solution. Change or training programs without opportunities for practice, application, and ongoing support are unlikely to have a lasting impact.
In 2024, anti-Black racism remains a pressing concern in Canada, with profound implications for the well-being and dignity of Black communities. Addressing systemic inequalities and discrimination requires sustained commitment and collective action from all sectors of society. By confronting racism, shifting cultural norms and ideologies, and addressing the power dynamics in institutions – in all its forms and centering the voices and experiences of those most impacted, we can move closer to the ideals of genuine equity and justice for all.
This is not just simply about hiring a diverse workforce; it’s about creating a culture where everyone feels valued, respected, and empowered to contribute, share power and have choices, opportunities and empowerment to navigate daily life with ease and liberation.
References
Black Health Alliance. (2021). Perspectives on health & well-being in Black communities in Toronto: Experiences through COVID‑19. Black Health Alliance. https://blackhealthalliance.ca/wp-content/uploads/Perspectives-on-Health-Well-Being-in-Black-Communities-in-Toronto-Experiences-through-COVID-19.pdf
Cameron, E. S., & Jefferies, K. (2020). Anti-Black racism in Canadian education: A call to action to support the next generation. Healthy Populations Journal, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.15273/hpj.v1i1.10587
DasGupta, N., Shandal, V., Shadd, D., Segal, A., & CivicAction, I. C. W. (2023, October 11). The pervasive reality of Anti-Black racism in Canada. BCG Global. https://www.bcg.com/publications/2020/reality-of-anti-black-racism-in-canada
Ferreira, V., & Ross, E. (2021). An intersectional approach to understanding the barriers of accessing mental health services in Canada. Western Undergraduate Psychology Journal, 9(1). https://ojs.lib.uwo.ca/index.php/wupj/article/view/14373
Foster, L., Park, S., McCague, H., F. (2021). Black Canadian National Survey Interim Report 2021, York University. https://blacknessincanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/0_Black-Canadian-National-Survey-Interim-Report-2021.2.pdf
Government of Canada. (2021). Building a Foundation for Change: Canada’s Anti-Racism Strategy 2019–2022. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/campaigns/anti-racism-engagement.html
Griffin, T. (2023, August 17). Class-action lawsuit proposed over Toronto police practice of “carding.” CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ont-toronto-police-carding-1.6939215
Henry, F., & Tator, C. (2009). The Colour of Democracy: Racism in Canadian Society. Nelson Education
Husbands, W., Lawson, D. O., Etowa, E. B., Mbuagbaw, L., Baidoobonso, S., Tharao, W., Yaya, S., Nelson, L. E., Aden, M., & Etowa, J. (2022). Black Canadians’ Exposure to Everyday Racism: Implications for Health System Access and Health Promotion among Urban Black Communities. Journal of urban health : bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 99(5), 829–841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-022-00676-w
Inikori, R., Dapaah, C., & Kangmennaang, J. (2025). Black Canadians’ experiences of structural racism in Ontario’s healthcare system. Inquiry@Queen’s Undergraduate Research Conference Proceedings, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.24908/iqurcp19898
Okusanya, I. G., & Meyer, S. B. (2025). Barriers to Accessing Mental Health Services That Impact Black Canadians: A Scoping Review and Thematic Analysis. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 10.1007/s40615-025-02306-y. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-025-02306-y
Public Health Agency of Canada. (2024). COVID-19 among Black people in Canada: A scoping review. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada, 44(3), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.44.3.03
Public Health Agency of Canada. (2020). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Outbreak Update. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection.html
Wortley, S., & Tanner, J. (2003). Data, denials, and confusion: The racial profiling debate in Toronto. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 45(3), 367–390. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.45.3.367
Wortley, S. (2002). Race, Crime, and Criminal Justice in Canada. University of Toronto Press.
Williams, K.K.A., Baidoobonso, S., Lofters, A. et al. (2024). Anti-Black racism in Canadian health care: a qualitative study of diverse perceptions of racism and racial discrimination among Black adults in Montreal, Quebec. BMC Public Health 24, 3152 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20636-0
HISTORIC SITES
Africville Museum. (n.d.). Virtual museum. https://africvillemuseum.org/virtual-museum/
Buxton National Historic Site & Museum. (n.d.). Virtual tour. https://www.buxtonmuseum.com/virtual-tour
Ontario Heritage Trust. (n.d.). Josiah Henson Museum of African-Canadian History. https://www.heritagetrust.on.ca/properties/josiah-henson-museum